Islam:
A Global Civilization
[Islamic Affairs Department, Royal Embassy of Saudi Arabia]
Source
The Religion of Islam
Introduction
The Qur'an
The Prophet of Islam
Islamic Law (Al-Shari'ah)
The Spread of Islam
Islam a World Civilization
General characteristics of Islamic Civilization
Global Religion
A Brief History of Islam
The Rightly Guided Caliphs
The Caliphates
Umayyad
Abbasids
North Africa and Spain
Islamic History after the Mongol invasion
Ottoman Empire
Persia
India
Malaysia And Indonesia
Africa
Islam in the United States
Islam and Knowledge
The attitude of the Quran and the Prophet toward Knowledge
The Integration of the Pre-Islamic Sciences
The Mathematical Sciences and Physics
Astronomy
Mathematics
Geometry
Trigonometry
The Medical Sciences
Hospitals
Natural History
Botany
Geography
Chemistry
Technology
Architecture
The influence of Islamic Science and Learning upon the West
Islam in the Modern World
The aftermath of the Colonial Period
Arab States
India and Pakistan
Far East
Africa and Soviet Union
National States
The Revival and Reassertation of Islam
Reform Organizations
Education and Science in the Islamic World
The case of Saudi Arabia
Conclusion
The Religion of Islam
"This day have I perfected your religion for you and completed My favor
unto you, and have chosen for you as your religion Islam." (Qur'an, Surah
V:3)
Introduction
Islam is a religion based upon the surrender to God who is One. The very
name of the religion, AL ISLAM in Arabic, means at once submission and peace,
for it is in submitting to God's Will that human beings gain peace in their
lives in this world and in the hereafter. The message of Islam concerns
God, who in Arabic is called Allah, and it addresses itself to humanity's
most profound nature. It concerns men and women as they were created by
God--not as fallen beings. Islam therefore considers itself to be not an
innovation but a reassertion of the universal truth of all revelation which
is God's Oneness.
This truth was asserted by the prophets of old and especially by Abraham,
the father of monotheism. Islam reveres all of these prophets including
not only Abraham, who is the father of the Arabs as well as of the Jews,
but also Moses and Christ. The Prophet and Messenger of God, Muhammad-may
peace and blessings be upon him, his family and his companions--, was the
last of this long lime of prophets and Islam is the last religion until
the Day of Judgment. It is the final expression of the Abrahamic tradition.
One should in fact properly speak of the Judeo-Christian-Islamic tradition.
One should in fact properly speak of the Judeo-Christian-Islamic tradition,
for Islam shares with the other Abrahamic religions their sacred history,
the basic ethical teachings contained in the Ten Commandments and above
all, belief in the One God. And it renews and repeats the true beliefs of
Jews and Christians whose scriptures are mentioned as divinely revealed
books in Islam's own sacred book, the Quran.
The Qur'an
For Muslims, or followers of Islam, the Qur'an is the actual Word of God
revealed through the archangel Gabriel to the Prophet of Islam during the
twenty-three-years period of his prophetic mission. It was revealed in the
Arabic language as a sonoral revelation which the Prophet repeated to his
companions. Arabic became therefore the language of Islam even for non Arab
Muslims. Under the direction of the Prophet, the verses and chapters were
organized in the order known to Muslims to this day. There is only one text
of Qur'an accepted by all schools of Islamic thought and there are no variants.
The Qur'an is the central sacred reality of Islam. The sound of the Qur'an
is the first and last sound that a Muslim hears in this life. As the direct
Word of God and the embodiment of God's Will, the Qur'an is considered as
the guide par excellence for the life of Muslims. It is the source of all
Islamic doctrines and ethics. Both the intellectual aspects of Islam and
Islamic Law have their source in the Qur'an. Perhaps there is no book revered
by any human collectivity as much as the Qur'an is revered by Muslims. Essentially
a religion of the book, Islam sees all authentic religions as being associated
with a scripture. That is why Muslims call Christians and Jews the "people
of the book".
Throughout all its chapters and verses, the Quran emphasizes the significance
of knowledge and encourages Muslims to learn and to acquire knowledge not
only of God's laws and religious injunctions, in a language rich in its
varied terminology, to the importance of seeing, contemplating, and reasoning
about the world of creation and its diverse phenomena. It places the gaining
of knowledge as the highest religious activity, one that is most pleasing
in God's eyes. That is why wherever the message of the Qur'an was accepted
and understood, the quest for knowledge flourished.
The Prophet of Islam
The Prophet of Islam is loved and revered by Muslims precisely because he
was chosen by God to reveal His Word to mankind. The Prophet Muhammad is
not considered to be divine but a human being. However, he is seen as the
most perfect of human beings, shining like a jewel among stones. He was
born in 570 A. D. in one of the most powerful tribes in the Arabia of that
time, for it had guardianship over the Ka'bah in Makkah. An orphan brought
up by his grandfather and later by his uncle, the young Muhammad displayed
exceptional virtue as a trustworthy individual whom members of various tribes
would invite to act as arbitrator in their disputes.
At that time the Arabs followed a form of idolatry, each tribe keeping its
own idols at the Ka'bah, the cubical structure built originally by Abraham
to celebrate the glory of the One God. But the monotheistic message of Abraham
had long become forgotten among the general population of the Arabian peninsula.
The young Muhammad, however was a believer in the One God all of his life
and never participated in the idolatrous practices of his tribe.
When forty years old, during one of the retreats which he made habitually
in a cave on top of a mountain outside Makkah, Muhammad first saw the archangel
Gabriel who revealed God's Word to him, the Quran, and announced the Muhammad
is the messenger of God. For the next thirteen years he preached the Word
of God to the Makkans, inviting them to abandon idolatry and accept the
religion of Oneness. A few accepted his call but most Makkans, especially
those of his own tribe, opposed him violently, seeing in the new religion
a grave danger to their economic as well as social domination based upon
their control of the Ka'bah. But the Prophet continued to call the people
to Islam and gradually a larger number of men and women began to accept
the faith and submit themselves to its teachings. As a result, persecution
of Muslims increased until the Prophet was forced to send some of his companions
to Abyssina where they were protected by the Christian King.
The Makkan period was also one of intense spiritual experience for the Prophet
and the noble companions who formed the nucleus of the new religious community
which was soon to spread worldwide. It was during this period that God ordered
the direction of prayers to be changed from Jerusalem to Makkah. To this
day Jerusalem remains along with Makkah and Madinah one of the holiest cities
of Islam.
In 622 A. D. the Prophet was ordered by God to migrate to Yathrib, a city
north of Makkah. He followed the Divine Command and left with his followers
for that city which henceforth was known as "The City of the Prophet" (Madinat
al-nabi) or simply Madinah. This event was so momentous that the Islamic
calendar begins with this migration (hijrah).
In Madinah, the Prophet established the first Islamic society which has
served as the model for all later Islamic societies. Several battles took
place against the invading Makkans which the Muslims won against great odds.
Soon more tribes began to join Islam and within a few years most of Arabia
had embraced the religion of Islam.
After many trials and eventually successive victories, the Prophet returned
triumphantly to Makkah where the people embraced Islam at last. He forgave
all his former enemies and marched to the Ka'bah, where he ordered his companion
and cousin 'Ali to join him in destroying all the idols. The Prophet reconstituted
the rite of pilgrimage as founded by Abraham. The Prophet then returned
to Madinah and made another pilgrimage to Makkah. It was upon returning
from this last pilgrim that he delivered his farewell address. Soon he fell
ill and after three day s died in 632 A. D. in Madinah where he was buried
in the chamber of his house next to the first mosque of Islam.
The Practices and traditions (Sunnah) of the Prophet which includes his
sayings (Hadith) became the guide for Muslims in the understanding of the
Quran and the practice of their religion. The Quran itself asserts that
God has chosen in the Prophet an example for Muslims to follow. Besides
this emulation of the Prophet in all aspects of life and thought, his sayings
were assembled by various scholars. Finally they were codified in books
of Hadith where the authentic were separated from the spurious. The Sunnah
has always remained, after the Quran, the second source of everything Islamic.
What is the Islamic Religion?
According to a famous saying of the Prophet Islam consists of five pillars
which are as follows: affirmation of the faith (shahadah), that is, witnessing
that La ilaha illa 'Llah (There is no divinity but Allah) and Muhammadun
rasul Allah (Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah); the five daily prayers
(al-salat) which Muslims perform facing Makkah; fasting (al-sawm) from dawn
to sunset during the month of Ramadan; making the pilgrimage to Makkah (al-hajj)
at least once in a lifetime if one's financial and physical conditions permit
it; and paying a 2 1/2% tax (al-zakat) on one's capital which is used for
the needs of the community. Muslims are also commanded to exhort others
to perform good acts and to abstain from evil. Ethics lies at the heart
of Islamic teachings and all men and women are expected to act ethically
towards each other at all times. As the Prophet has said, "None of you is
a believer until you love for your brother what you love for yourself."
As for faith according to Islam (al-iman), it means having faith in God,
His books, His messengers, the Day of Judgment and God's determination of
human destiny. It is important to understand that the definition of al-iman
refers to books and prophets in the plural thus pointing directly to the
universality of revelation and respect for other religions emphasized so
much in the Quran. There is also the important concept, al-ihsan or virtue,
which means to worship God as if one sees him, knowing that even if one
does not see Him, He sees us. It means to remember God at all times and
marks the highest level of being a Muslim.
Islamic Law (Al-Shari'ah)
Islam possesses a religious law called al-Shari'ah in Arabic which governs
the life of Muslims and which Muslims consider to be the embodiment of the
Will of god. The Shari'ah is contained in principle in the Quran as elaborated
and complemented by the Sunnah. On the basis of these principles the schools
of this day were developed early in Islamic history. This Law, while being
rooted in the sources of the Islamic revelation, is a living body of law
which caters to the needs of Islamic society.
Islamic laws are essentially preventative and are not based on harsh punishment
except as a last measure. The faith of the Muslim causes him to have respect
for the rights of others and Islamic Law is such that it prevents transgression
from taking place in most instances. That is why what people consider to
be harsh punishments are so rarely in need of being applied.
The Spread of Islam
From the oasis cities of Makkah and Madinah in the Arabian desert, the message
of Islam went forth with electrifying speed. Within half a century of the
Prophet's death, Islam had spread to three continents. Islam is not, as
some imagine in the West, a religion of the sword nor did it spread primarily
by means of war. It was only within Arabia, where a crude form of idolatry
was rampant, that Islam was propagated by warring against those tribes which
did not accept the message of God--whereas Christians and Jews were not
forced to convert. Outside of Arabia also the vast lands conquered by the
Arab armies in a short period became Muslim not by force of the sword but
by the appeal of the new religion. It was faith in One God and emphasis
upon His Mercy that brought vast numbers of people into the fold of Islam.
The new religion did not coerce people to convert. Many continued to remain
Jews and Christians and to this day important communities of the followers
of these faiths are found in Muslim lands.
Moreover, the spread of Islam was not limited to its miraculous early expansion
outside of Arabia. During later centuries the Turks embraced Islam peacefully
as did a large number of the people of the Indian subcontinent and the Malay-speaking
world. In Africa also, Islam has spread during the past two centuries even
under the mighty power of European colonial rulers. Today Islam continues
to grow not only in Africa but also in Europe and America where Muslims
now comprise a notable minority.
Islam a World Civilization
"Thus We have appointed you a middle nation, that you may be witnesses
upon mankind." (Quran, surah 11:43)
General characteristics of Islamic Civilization
Islam was destined to become a world religion and to create a civilization
which stretched from one end of the globe to the other. Already during the
early Muslim caliphates, first the Arabs, then the Persians and later the
Turks set about to create classical Islamic civilization. Later, in the
13th century, both Africa and India became great centers of Islamic civilization
and soon thereafter Muslim kingdoms were established in the Malay Indonesian
world while Chinese Muslims flourished throughout china.
Global Religion
Islam is a religion for all people from whatever race or background they
might be. That is why Islamic civilization is based on a unity which stands
completely against any racial or ethnic discrimination. Such major racial
and ethnic groups as the Arabs, Persians, Turks, Africans, Indians, Chinese
and Malays in addition to numerous smaller units embraced Islam and contributed
to the building of Islamic civilization. Moreover, Islam was not opposed
to learning from the earlier civilizations and incorporating their science,
learning, and culture into its own world view, as long as they did not oppose
the principles of Islam. Each ethnic and racial group which embraced Islam
made its contribution to the one Islamic civilization to which everyone
belonged. The sense of brotherhood and sisterhood was so much emphasized
that it overcame all local attachments to a particular tribe, race, or language-all
of which became subservient to the universal brotherhood and sisterhood
of Islam.
The global civilization thus created by Islam permitted people of diverse
ethnic backgrounds to work together in cultivation various arts and sciences.
Although the civilization was profoundly Islamic, even non Muslim "people
of the book" participated in the intellectual activity whose fruits belonged
to everyone. The scientific climate was reminiscent of the present situation
in America where scientists and men and women of learning from all over
the world are active in the advancement of knowledge which belongs to everyone.
The global civilization created by Islam also succeeded in activating the
mind and thought of the people who entered its fold. As a result of Islam,
the nomadic Arabs became torch-bearers of science and learning. The Persians
who had created a great civilization before the rise of Islam nevertheless
produced much more science and learning in the Islamic period than before.
The same can be said of the Turks and other peoples who embraced Islam.
The religion of Islam was itself responsible not only for the creation of
a world civilization in which people of many different ethnic backgrounds
participated, but it played a central role in developing intellectual and
cultural life on a scale not seen before. For some eight hundred years Arabic
remained the major intellectual and scientific language of the world. During
the centuries following the rise of Islam, Muslim dynasties ruling in various
parts of the Islamic world bore witness to the flowering of Islamic culture
and thought. In fact this tradition of intellectual activity was eclipsed
only at the beginning of modern times as a result of the weakening of faith
among Muslims combined with external domination. And today this activity
has begun anew in many parts of the Islamic world now that the Muslims have
regained their political independence.
A Brief History of Islam
The Rightly Guided Caliphs
Upon the death of the Prophet, Abu Bakr, the friend of the Prophet and the
first adult male to embrace Islam, became caliph. Abu Bakrruled for two
years to be succeeded by 'Umar who was caliph for a decade and during whose
rule Islam spread extensively east and west conquering the Persian empire,
Syria and Egypt. It was 'Umar who marched on foot at the end of the Muslim
army into Jerusalem and ordered the protection of public treasury and a
sophisticated financial administration. He established may of the basic
practices of Islamic government.
'Umar was succeeded by 'Uthman who ruled for some twelve years during which
time the Islamic expansion continued. He is also known as the caliph who
had the definitive text of the Noble Quran copied and sent to the four comers
of the Islamic world. He was in turn succeeded by 'Ali who is known to this
day for his eloquent sermons and letters, and also for his bravery. With
his death the rule of the "rightly guided" caliphs, who hold a special place
of respect in the hearts of Muslims came to an end.
The Caliphates
The Umayad caliphate established in 661 was to last for about a century.
During this time Damascus became the Capital of an Islamic world which stretched
from the western borders of China to southern France. Not only did the Islamic
conquests continue during this period through North Africa to Spain and
France in the West and to Sind, Central Asia and Transoxiana in the East,
but the basic social and legal institutions of the newly founded Islamic
world were established.
Umayyad
The Abbasids, who succeeded the Umayyads, shifted the capital to Baghdad
which soon developed into an incomparable center of learning and culture
as well as the administrative and political hear of a vast world.
Abbasids
They ruled for over 500 years but gradually their power waned and they remained
only symbolic rulers bestowing legitimacy upon various sultans and princes
who wielded actual military power. The Abbasid caliphate was finally abolished
when Hulagu, the Mongol ruler, captured Baghdad in 1258, destroying much
of the city including its incomparable libraries.
While the Abbasids ruled in Baghdad, a number of powerful dynasties such
as the Fatimids, Ayyubids and Mamluks held power in Egypt, Syria and Palestine.
The most important event in this area as far as the relation between Islam
and the Western world was concerned was the series of Crusades declared
by the Pope and espoused by various European kings. The purpose, although
political, was outwardly to recapture the Holy Land and especially Jerusalem
for Christianity. Although there was at the beginning some success and local
European rule was set up in parts of Syria and Palestine, Muslims finally
prevailed and in 1187 Saladin, the great Muslim leader, recaptured Jerusalem
and defeated the Crusaders.
North Africa and Spain
When the Abbasids captured Damascus, one of the Umayyad princes escaped
and made the long journey from there to Spain to found Umayyad rule there,
thus beginning the golden age of Islam in Spain. Cordoba was established
as the capital and soon became Europe's greatest city not only in population
but from the point of view of its cultural and intellectual life. The Umayyads
ruled over two centuries until they weakened and were replaced by local
rulers.
Meanwhile in North Africa, various local dynasties held sway until two powerful
Berber dynasties succeeded in uniting much of North Africa and also Spain
in the 12th and 13th centuries. After them this area was ruled once again
by local dynasties such as the Sharifids of Morocco who still rule in that
country. As for Spain itself, Muslim dynasty was defeated in Granada in
1492 thus bringing nearly eight hundred years of Muslim rule in Spain to
an end.
Islamic History after the Mongol invasion
The Mongols devastated the eastern lands of Islam and ruled from the Sinai
Desert to India for a century. But they soon converted to Islam and became
known as the II-Khanids. They were in turn succeeded by Timur and his descendants
who made Samarqand their capital and ruled from 1369 to 1500. The sudden
rise of Timur delayed the formation and expansion of the Ottoman empire
but soon the Ottomans became the dominant power in the Islamic world.
Ottoman Empire
From humble origins the Turks rose to dominate over the whole of Anatolia
and even parts of Europe. In 1453 Mehmet the Conqueror captured Constantiople
and put an end to the Byzantine empire. The Ottomans conquered much of eastern
Europe and nearly the whole of the Arab world, only Morocco and Mauritania
in the West and Yemen, Hadramaut and parts of the Arabian peninsula remaining
beyond their control. They reached their zenith of power with Suleyman the
Magnificent whose armies reached Hungary and Austria. From the 17th century
onward with the rise of Western European powers and later Russia, the power
of the Ottomans began to wane. But they nevertheless remained a force to
be reckoned with until the First World War when they were defeated by Western
nations. Soon thereafter Kamal Ataturk gained power in Turkey and abolished
the six centuries of rule of the Ottomans in 1924.
Persia
While the Ottomans were concerned mostly with the western front of their
empire, to the east in Persia a new dynasty called the Safavids came to
power in 1502. The Safavids established a powerful state of their own which
flourished for over two centuries and became known for the flowering of
the arts. Their capital Isfahan, became one of the most beautiful cities
with its blue tiled mosques and exquisite houses. The Afghan invasion of
1736 put an end to Safavid rule and prepared the independence of Afghanistan
which occurred formally in the 19th century. Persia itself fell into turmoil
until Nader Shah, the last Oriental conqueror, reunited the country and
even conquered India. But the rule of the dynasty established by him was
short-lived. The Zand dynasty soon took over to be overthrown by the Qajars
in 1779 who made Tehran their capital and ruled until 1921 when they were
in turn replaced by the Pahlavis.
India
As for India, Islam entered into the land east of the Indus River peacefully.
Gradually Muslims gained political power beginning in the early 13th century.
But this period which marked the expansion of both Islam and Islamic culture
came to an end with the conquest of much of India in 1526 by Babur, one
of the Timurid princes. He established the powerful Mogul empire which produced
such famous rulers as Akbar, Jahangir, and Shah Jahan and which lasted,
despite the gradual rise of British power in India, until 1857 when it was
officially abolished.
Malaysia And Indonesia
Farther east in the Malay world, Islam began to spread in the 12th century
in northern Sumatra and soon Muslim kingdoms were established in Java, Sumatra
and mainland Malaysia. Despite the colonization of the Malay world, Islam
spread in that area covering present day Indonesia. Malaysia, the southern
Philippines and southern Thailand, and is still continuing in islands farther
east.
Africa
As far as Africa is concerned, Islam entered into East Africa at the very
beginning of the Islamic period but remained confined to the coast for some
time, only the Sudan and Somaliland becoming gradually both Arabized and
Islamized. West Africa felt the presence of Islam through North African
traders who traveled with their camel caravans south of the Sahara. By the
14th century there were already Muslim sultanates in such areas as Mali,
and Timbuctu in West Africa and Harar in East Africa had become seats of
Islamic learning.
Islam in the United States
Gradually Islam penetrated both inland and southward. There also appeared
major charismatic figures who inspired intense resistance against European
domination. The process of the Islamization of Africa did not cease during
the colonial period and continues even today with the result that most Africans
are now Muslims carrying on a tradition which has had practically as long
a history in certain areas of sub-Saharan Africa as Islam itself.
Islam and Knowledge
"He has taught you that which [heretofore] you knew not" (quran, surah
ii:239)
The attitude of the Quran and the Prophet toward Knowledge
Islam is a religion based upon knowledge for it is ultimately knowledge
of the Oneness of God combined with faith and total commitment to Him that
saves man. The text of the Quran is replete with verses inviting man to
use his intellect, to ponder, to think and to know, for the goal of human
life is to discover the Truth which is none other than worshipping God in
His Oneness. The Hadith literature is also full of references to the importance
of knowledge. Such sayings of the Prophet as "Seek knowledge even in China",
"Seek knowledge from the cradle to the grave", and Verily the men of knowledge
are the inheritors of the prophets", have echoed throughout the history
of Islam and incited Muslims to seek knowledge wherever it might be found.
During most of its history, Islamic civilization has been witness to a veritable
celebration of knowledge. That is why every traditional Islamic city possessed
public and private libraries and some cities like Cordoba and Baghdad boasted
of libraries with over 400,000 books. Such cities also had bookstores, some
of which sold a large number of titles. That is also why the scholar has
always been held in the highest esteem in Islamic society.
The Integration of the Pre-Islamic Sciences
As Islam spread northward into Syria, Egypt, and the Persian empire, it
came face to face with the sciences of antiquity whose heritage had been
preserved in centers which now became a part of the Islamic world. Alexandria
had been a major center of sciences and learning for centuries. The Greek
learning cultivated in Alexandria was opposed by the Byzantines who had
burned its library long before the advent of Islam. The tradition of Alexandrian
learning did not die, however. It was transferred to Antioch and from there
farther east to such cities as Edessa by eastern Christians who stood in
sharp opposition to Byzantium and wished to have their own independent centers
of learning. Moreover, the Persian king, Shapur I, had established Jundishapur
in Persia as a second great center of learning matching Antioch. He even
invited Indian physicians and mathematicians to teach in this major seat
of learning, in addition to the Christian scholars who taught in Syriac
as well as the Persians whose medium of instruction was Pahlavi.
Once Muslims established the new Islamic order during the Umayyad period,
they turned their attention to these centers of learning which had been
preserved and sought to acquaint themselves with the knowledge taught and
cultivated in them. They therefore set about with a concerted effort of
translate the philosophical and scientific works which were available to
them from not only Greek and Syriac (which was the language of eastern Christian
scholars) but also from Pahlavi, the scholarly language of pro-Islamic Persia,
and even from Sanskrit. Many of the accomplished translators were Christian
Arabs such as Hunayn ibn Ishaq, who was also an outstanding physician, and
others Persians such as Ibn Muqaffa', who played a major role in the creation
of the new Arabic prose style conductive to the expression of philosophical
and scientific writing. The great movement of translation lasted from the
beginning of the 8th to the end of the 9th century, reaching its peak with
the establishment of the House of Wisdom (Bayt al-hikmah) by the caliph
al-Ma'mun at the beginning of the 9th century.
The result of this extensive effort of the Islamic community to confront
the challenge of the presence of the various philosophies and sciences of
antiquity and to understand and digest them in its own terms and according
to its own world view was the translation of a vast corpus of writings into
Arabic. Most of the important philosophical and scientific works of Aristotle
and his school, much of Plato and the Pythagorean school, and the major
works of Greek astronomy, mathematics and medicine such as the Almagest
of Ptolemy, The Elements of Euclid, and the works of Hippocrates and Galen,
were all rendered into Arabic. Furthermore, important works of astronomy,
mathematics and medicine were translated from Pahlavi and Sanskrit. As a
result, Arabic became the most important scientific language of the world
for many centuries and the depository of much of the wisdom and the sciences
of antiquity.
The Muslims did not translate the scientific and philosophical works of
other civilizations out of fear of political or economic domination but
because the structure of Islam itself is based upon the primacy of knowledge.
Nor did they consider these forms of knowing as "un-Islamic" as long as
they confirmed the doctrine of God's Oneness which Islam considers to have
been at the heart of every authentic revelation from God. Once these sciences
and philosophies confirmed the principle of Oneness, the Muslims considered
them as their own. They made them part of their world view and began to
cultivate the Islamic sciences based on what they had translated, analyzed,
criticized, and assimilated, rejecting what was not in conformity with the
Islamic perspective.
The Mathematical Sciences and Physics
The Muslim mind has always been attracted to the mathematical sciences in
accordance with the "abstract" character of the doctrine of Oneness which
lies at the heart of Islam. The mathematical sciences have traditionally
included astronomy, mathematics itself and much of what is called physics
today. In astronomy the Muslims integrated the astronomical traditions of
the Indians, Persians, the ancient Near East and especially the Greeks into
a synthesis which began to chart a new chapter in the history of astronomy
from the 8th century onward. The Almagest of Ptolemy, whose very name in
English reveals the Arabic origin of its Latin translation, was thoroughly
studied and its planetary theory criticized by several astronomers of both
the eastern and western lands of Islam leading to the major critique of
the theory by Nasir al-Din al-Tusi and his students, especially Qutb al-Din
al-Shirazi, in the 13th century.
The Muslims also observed the heavens carefully and discovered many new
stars. The book on stars of 'Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi was in fact translated
into Spanish by Alfonso X el Sabio and had a deep influence upon stellar
toponymy in European languages. Many star names in English such as Aldabran
still recall their Arabic origin. The Muslims carried out many fresh observations
which were contained in astronomical tables called Zij. One of the acutest
of these observers was al-Battani whose work was followed by numerous others.
The Zij of al-Ma'mun observed in Baghdad, the Hakimite Zij of Cairo, the
Toledan Tables of al-Zarqali and his associated, the II-Khanid Zij of Nasir
al-Din al-Tusi observed in Maraghah, and the Zij of Ulugh-Beg from Samarqand
are among the most famous Islamic astronomical tables. They wielded a great
deal of influence upon Western astronomy up to the time of Tycho Brahe.
The Muslims were in fact the first to create an astronomical observatory
as a scientific institution, this being the observatory of Maraghah in Persia
established by al-Tusi. This was indirectly the model for the later European
observatories. Many astronomical instruments were developed by Muslims to
carry out observation, the most famous being the astrolabe. There existed
even mechanical astrolabes perfected by Ibn Samh which must be considered
as the ancestor of the mechanical clock.
Astronomy
Astronomical observations also had practical applications including not
only finding the direction of Makkah for prayers, but also devising almanacs
(the word itself being of Arabic origin). The Muslims also applied their
astronomical knowledge to questions of time-keeping and the calendar. The
most exact solar calendar existing to this day is the Jalali calendar devised
under the direction of 'Umar Khayyam in the 12th century and still in use
in Persia and Afghanistan.
Mathematics
As for mathematics proper, like astronomy, it received its direct impetus
from the Quran not only because of the mathematical structure related to
the text of the Sacred Book, but also because the laws of inheritance delineated
in the Quran require rather complicated mathematical solutions. Here again
Muslims began by integrating Greek and Indian mathematics. The first great
Muslim mathematician, al-Khwarazmi, who lived in the 9th century, wrote
a treatise on arithmetic whose Latin translation brought what is known as
Arabic numerals to the West. To this day guarismo, derived from his name,
means figure or digit in Spanish while algorithm is still used in English.
Al-Khwarzmi is also the author of the first book on algebra. This science
was developed by Muslims on the basis of earlier Greek and Indian works
of a rudimentary nature. The very name algebra comes from the first part
of the name of the book of al-Khwarazmi, entitled Kitab al-jabr wa'l-muqabalah.
Abu Kamil al-Shuja' discussed algebraic equations with five unknowns. The
science was further developed by such figures as al-Karaji until it reached
its peak with Khayyam who classified by kind and class algebraic equations
up to the third degree.
Geometry
The Muslims also excelled in geometry as reflected in their art. The brothers
Banu Musa who lived in the 9th century may be said to be the first outstanding
Muslim geometers while their contemporary Thabit ibn Qurrah used the method
of exhaustion, giving a glimpse of what was to become integral calculus.
Many Muslim mathematicians such as Khayyam and al-Tusi also dealt with the
fifth postulate of Euclid and the problems which follow if one tries to
prove this postulate within the confines of Euclidin geometry.
Trigonometry
Another branch of mathematics developed by Muslims is trigonometry which
was established as a distinct branch of mathematics by al-Biruni. The Muslim
mathematicians, especially al-Battani, Abu'l-Wafa', Ibn Yunus and Ibn al-Haytham,
also developed spherical astronomy and applied it to the solution of astronomy
and applied it to the solution of astronomical problems.
The love for the study of magic squares and amicable numbers led Muslims
to develop the theory of numbers. Al-Khujandi discovered a particular case
of Fermat's theorem that "the sum of two cubes cannot be another cube",
while al-Karaji analyzed arithmetic and geometric progressions such as:
13+23+33+...+n3=(1+2+3+...+n)2. Al-Biruni also dealt with progressions while
Ghiyath al-Din Jamshid al-Kashani brought the study of number theory among
Muslims to its peak.
In the field of physics the Muslims made contributions in especially three
domains. The first was the measurement of specific weights of objects and
the study of the balance following upon the work of Archimedes. In this
domain the writings of al-Biruni and al-Khazini stand out. Secondly they
criticized the Aristotelian theory of projectile motion and tried to quantify
this type of motion. The critique of Ibn Sina, Abu'l-Barakat al-Baghdadi,
Ibn Bajjah and others led to the development of the idea of impetus and
momentum and played an important role in the criticism of Aristotelian physics
in the West up to the early writings of Galileo. Thirdly there is the field
of optics in which the Islamic sciences produced in Ibn al-Haytham (the
Latin Alhzen) who lived in the 11th century, the greatest student of optics
between Ptolemy and Witelo. Ibn al-Haytham's main work on optics, the Kitab
al-manazir, was also well known in the West as Thesaurus opticus. Ibn al-Haytham
solved many optical problems, one of which is named after him, studied the
property of lenses, discovered the Camera Obscura, explained correctly the
process of vision, studied the structure of the eye, and explained for the
first time why the sun and the moon appear larger on the horizon. His interest
in optics was carried out two centuries later by Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi
and Kamal al-Din al-Farisi. It was Qutb al-Din who gave the first correct
explanation of the formation of the rainbow.
It is important to recall that in physics as in many other fields of science
the Muslims observed, measured and carried out experiments. They must be
credited with having developed what came to be known later as the experimental
method.
The Medical Sciences
The Hadiths of the Prophet contain many instructions concerning health including
dietary habits; these sayings became the foundation of what came to be known
later as "Prophetic medicine" (al-tibb al-nabawi). Because of the great
attention paid in Islam to the need to take care of the body and to hygiene,
early in Islamic history Muslims began to cultivate the field of medicine
turning once again to all the knowledge that was available to them from
Greek, Persians and Indian sources. At first the great physicians among
Muslims were mostly Christian but by the 9th century Islamic medicine, properly
speaking, was born with the appearance of the major compendium, The Paradise
of Wisdom (Firdaws al-hikmah) by 'Ali ibn Rabban al-Tabari, who synthesized
the Hippocratic and Galemic traditions of medicine with those of India and
Persia. His student, Muhammad ibn Zakariyya' al-Razi (the Latin Rhazes),
was one of the greatest of physicians who emphasized clinical medicine and
observation. He was a master of prognosis and psychosomatic medicine and
also of anatomy. He was the first to identify and treat smallpox, to use
alcohol as an antiseptic and make medical use of mercury as a purgative.
His Kitab al-hawi (Continens) is the longest work ever written in Islamic
medicine and he was recognized as a medical authority in the West up to
the 18th century.
The greatest of all Muslim physicians, however, was Ibn Sina who was called
"the prince of physicians" in the West. He synthesized Islamic medicine
in his major masterpiece, al-Qanun fi'ltibb (The Canon of Medicine), which
is the most famous of all medical books in history. It was the final authority
in medical books in history. It was the final authority in medical matters
in Europe for nearly six centuries and is still taught wherever Islamic
medicine has survived to this day in such land as Pakistan and India. Ibn
Sina discovered many drugs and identified and treated several ailments such
as meningitis but his greatest contribution was in the philosophy of medicine.
He created a system of medicine within which medical practice could be carried
out and in which physical and psychological factors, drugs and diet are
combined.
After Ibn Sina, Islamic medicine divided into several branches. In the Arab
world Egypt remained a major center for the study of medicine, especially
ophthalmology which reached its peak at the court of al-Hakim. Cairo possessed
excellent hospitals which also drew physicians from other lands including
Ibn Butlan, author of the famous Calendar of Health, and Ibn Nafis who discovered
the lesser or pulmonary circulation of the blood long before Michael Servetus,
who is usually credited with the discovery.
As for the western lands of Islam including Spain, this area was likewise
witness to the appearance of outstanding physicians such as Sa'd al-Katib
of Cordoba who composed a treatise on gynecology, and the greatest Muslim
figure in surgery, the 12th century Abu'l-Qasim al-Zahrawi (the Latin Albucasis)
whose medical masterpiece Kitab al-tasrif was well known in the West as
Concessio. One must also mention the Ibn Zuhr family which produced several
outstanding physicians and Abu Marwan 'Abd al-Malik who was the Maghrib's
most outstanding clinical physician. The well known Spanish philosophers,
Ibn Tufayl and Ibn Rushd, were also outstanding physicians.
Islamic medicine continued in Persia and the other eastern lands of the
Islamic world under the influence of Ibn Sina with the appearance of major
Persian medical compendia such as the Treasury of Sharaf al-Din al-Jurjani
and the commentaries upon the Canon by Fakhr al-Din al-Razi and Qutb al
Din al-Shirazi. Even after the Mongol invasion, medical studies continued
as can be seen in the work of Rashid al-Din Fadlallah, and for the first
time there appeared translations of Chinese medicine and interest in acupuncture
among Muslims. The Islamic medical tradition was revived in Safavid period
when several diseases such as the first time and much attention was paid
to pharmacology. Many Persian doctors such as 'Ayn al-Mulk of Shiraz also
traveled to India at this time to usher in golden age of Islamic medicine
in the subcontinent and to plant the seed of the Islamic medical tradition
which continues to flourish to this day in the soil of that land.
The Ottoman world was also an arena of great medical activity derived from
the heritage of Ibn Sina. The Ottoman Turks were especially known for the
creation of major hospitals and medical centers. These included not only
units for the care of the physically ill, but also wards for patients with
psychological ailments. The Ottomans were also the first to receive the
influence of modern European medicine in both medicine and pharmacology.
Hospitals
In mentioning Islamic hospitals it is necessary to mention that all major
Islamic cities had hospitals; some like those of Baghdad were teaching hospitals
while some like the Nasiri hospital of Cairo had thousands of beds for patients
with almost any type of illness. Hygiene in these hospitals was greatly
emphasized and al-Razi had even written a treatise on hygiene in hospitals.
Some hospitals also specialized in particular diseases including psychological
ones. Cairo even had a hospital which specialized in patients having insomnia.
Islamic medical authorities were also always concerned with the significance
of pharmacology and many important works such as the Canon have whole books
devoted to the subject. The Muslims became heir not only to the pharmacological
knowledge of the Greeks as contained in the works of Dioscorides, but also
the vast herbal pharmacopias of the Persians and Indians. They also studied
the medical effects of many drugs, especially herbs, themselves. The greatest
contributions in this field came from Maghribi scientists such as Ibn JulJul,
Ibn al-Salt and the most original of Muslim pharmacologists, the 12th century
scientist, al-Ghafiqi, whose Book of Simple Drugs provides the best descriptions
of the medical properties of plants known to Muslims. Islamic medicine combined
the use of drugs for medical purposes with dietary considerations and a
whole lifestyle derived from the teachings of Islam to create a synthesis
which has not died out to this day despite the introduction of modern medicine
into most of the Islamic world.
Natural History
The vast expanse of the Islamic world enabled the Muslims to develop natural
history based not only on the Mediterranean world, as was the case of the
Greek natural historians, but also on most of the Eurasian and even African
land masses. knowledge of minerals, plants and animals was assembled from
areas as far away as the Malay world and synthesized for the first time
by Ibn Sina in his Kitab al-Shifa' (The Book of Healing). Such major natural
and human history. Al-Biruni likewise in his study of India turned to the
natural history and even geology of the region, describing correctly the
sedimentary nature of the Ganges basin. He also wrote the most outstanding
Muslim work on mineralogy.
Botany
As for botany, the most important treatises were composed in the 12th century
in Spain with the appearance of the work of al-Ghafiqi. This is also the
period when the best known Arabic work on agriculture, The Kitab alfalahah,
was written. The Muslims also showed much interest in zoology especially
in horses as witnessed by the classical text of al-Jawaliqi, and in falcons
and other hunting birds. The works of al-Jahiz and al-Damiri are especially
famous in the field of zoology and deal with the literary, moral and even
theological dimensions of the study of animals as well as the purely zoological
aspects of the subject. This is also true of a whole class of writings on
the "wonders of creation" of which the book of Abu Yahya al-Qazwini, the
Aja'ib al-makhluqat (The Wonders of Creation) is perhaps the most famous.
Geography
Likewise in geography, Muslims were able to extend their horizons far beyond
the world of Ptolemy. As a result of travel over land and by sea and the
facile exchange of ideas made possible by the unified structure of the Islamic
world and the hajj which enables pilgrims from all over the Islamic world
to gather and exchange ideas in addition to visiting the House of God, a
vast amount of knowledge of areas from the Pacific to the Atlantic was assembled.
The Muslim geography of practically the whole globe minus the Americas,
dividing the earth into the traditional seven climes each of which they
studied carefully from both a geographical and climactic point of view.
They also began to draw maps some of which reveal with remarkable accuracy
many features such as the origin of the Nile, not discovered in the West
until much later. The foremost among Muslim geographers was Abu 'Abdallah
al-drisi, who worked at the court of Roger II in Sicily and who dedicated
his famous book, Kitab al-rujari (The Book of Roger) to him. His maps are
among the great achievements of Islamic Science. It was in fact with the
help of Muslim geographers and navigators that Magellan crossed the Cape
of Good Hope into the Indian Ocean. Even Columbus made use of their knowledge
in his discovery of America.
Chemistry
The very name alchemy as well as its derivative chemistry come from the
Arabic al-Kimiya'. The Muslims mastered Alexandrian and very early in their
history, produced their greatest alchemist, Jabir ibn Hayyan (the Latin
Geber) who lived in the 8th century. Putting the cosmological and symbolic
aspects of alchemy aside, one can assert that this art led to much experimentation
with various materials and in the hands of Muhammad Ibn Zakariyya' al-Razi
was converted into the science of chemistry. To this day certain chemical
instruments such as the alembic (al-'ambiq) still bear their original Arabic
names and the mercury-sulphur theory of Islamic alchemy remains as the foundation
of the acid-base theory of chemistry. Al-Razi's division of materials into
animal, vegetable and mineral is still prevalent and a vast body of knowledge
of materials accumulated by Islamic alchemists and chemists has survived
over the centuries in both East and West. For example the use of dyes in
objects of Islamic art ranging from carpets to miniatures or the making
of glass have much to do with this branch of learning which the West learned
completely from Islamic sources since alchemy was not studied and practiced
in the West before the translation of Arabic texts into Latin in the 11th
century.
Technology
Islam inherited the millennial experience in various forms of technology
from the peoples who entered the fold of Islam and the nations which became
part of Dar al-islam. A wide range of technological knowledge, from the
building of water wheels by the Romans to the underground water system by
the Persians, became part and parcel of the technology of the newly founded
order.
Muslims also imported certain kinds of technology from the Far East such
as paper which they brought from China and whose technology they later transmitted
to the West. They also developed many forms of technology on the basis of
earlier existing knowledge such as the metallurgical art making the famous
Damascene swords, and art which goes back to the making of steel several
thousand years before on the Iranian Plateau. Likewise Muslims developed
new architectural techniques of vaulting, methods of ventilation, preparations
of dyes, techniques of weaving, technologies related to irrigation and numerous
other forms of technology, some of which survive to this day.
In general Islamic civilization emphasized the harmony between man and nature
as seen in traditional design of Islamic cities. Maximum use was made of
natural elements and forces, and men built in harmony with, not in opposition
to nature. Some of the Muslim technological feats such as dams which have
survived for over a millennium, domes which can withstand earthquakes, and
steel which reveals incredible metallurgical know-how, attest to the exceptional
attainment of Muslims in many fields of technology. In fact it was a vastly
superior technology that first impressed the Crusaders in their unsuccessful
attempt to capture the Holly Land and much of this technology was brought
back by the Crusaders to the rest of Europe.
Architecture
One of the major achievements of Islamic civilization is architecture which
combines technology and art. The great masterpieces of Islamic architecture
from the Cordoba Mosque and the Dome of Rock in Jerusalem to the Taj Mahal
in India display this perfect wedding between the artistic principles of
Islam and remarkable technological know-how. Much of the outstanding medieval
architecture of the West is in fact indebted to the techniques of Islamic
architecture. When one views the Notre Dame in Paris or some other Gothic
cathedral, one is reminded of the building techniques which traveled from
Muslim Cordoba northward. Gothic arches as well as interior courtyards'
of so many medieval and Renaissance European structures remind the viewer
of the Islamic architectural examples from which they originally drew. In
fact the great medieval European architecture can also be directly experienced
in the Moorish style found not only in Spain and Latin America, but in the
southwestern United States as well.
The influence of Islamic Science and Learning upon the West
The oldest university in the world which is still functioning is the eleven
hundred-year-old Islamic University of Fez, Morocco, known as the Qarawiyyin.
This old tradition of Islamic learning influenced the West greatly through
Spain. In this land where Muslims, Christians and Jews lived for the most
part peacefully for may centuries, translations began to be made in the
11th century mostly in Toledo of Islamic works into Latin often through
the intermediary of Jewish scholars most of whom knew Arabic and often wrote
in Arabic. As a result of these translations, Islamic thought and through
it much of Greek thought became known to the West and Western schools of
learning began to flourish. Even the Islamic educational system was emulated
in Europe and to this day the term chair in a university reflects the Arabic
Kursi (literally seat) upon which a teacher would sit to teach his students
in the Madrasah (school of higher learning). As European civilization grew
and reached the high Middle Ages, there was hardly a field of learning or
a form of art, whether it was literature or architecture, where there was
not some influence of Islam present. Islamic learning became in this way
part and parcel of Western civilization even if with the advent of the Renaissance,
the West not only turned against its own medieval past put also sought to
forget the long relation it had with the Islamic world, one which was based
on intellectual respect despite religious opposition.
Islam in the Modern World
"Most surely man is in loss, except those who believe and do good, and enjoin
on each other truth, and enjoin of each other patience" (Qurna, Surah CIII:2-3).
The aftermath of the Colonial Period
At the height of European colonial expansion in the 19th century, most of
the Islamic world was under colonial rule with the exception of a few regions
such as the heart of the Ottoman empire, Persia, Afghanistan, Yemen and
certain parts of Arabia. Bus even these areas were under foreign influence
or, in the case of the Ottomans, under constant threat.
Arab States
After the First World War with the breakup of the Ottoman empire, a number
of Arab states such as Iraq became independent, others like Jordan were
created as a new entity and yet others like Palestine, Syria and Lebanon
were either mandated or turned into French colonies. As for Arabia, it was
at this time that Saudi Arabia became finally consolidated. As for other
parts of the Islamic world, Egypt which had been ruled by the descendants
of Muhammad Ali since the 19th century became more independent as a result
of the fall of the Ottomans, Turkey was turned into a secular republic by
Ataturk, and the Pahlavi dynasty began a new chapter in Persia where its
name reverted to its eastern traditional form of Iran. But most of the rest
of the Islamic world remained under colonial rule.
It was only after the Second World War and the dismemberment of the British,
French, Dutch and Spanish empires that the rest of the Islamic world gained
its independence. In the Arab world, Syria and Lebanon became independent
at the end of the war as did Libya and shaykdoms around the Gulf and the
Arabian Sea by the 1960's. The North African countries of Tunisia, Morocco
and Algeria had to fight a difficult and, in the case of Algeria, long and
protracted war to gain their freedom which did not come until a decade later
for Tunisia and Morocco and two decades later for Algeria. Only Palestine
did not become independent but was partitioned in 1948 with the establishment
of the state of Israel.
India and Pakistan
In India Muslims participated in the freedom movement against British rule
along with Hindus and when independence finally came in 1947, they were
able to create their own homeland, Pakistan, which came into being for the
sake of Islam and became the most populated Muslim state although many Muslims
remained in India.
Far East
In 1971, however, the two parts of the state broke up, East Pakistan becoming
Bangladesh. Farther east still, the Indonesians finally gained their independence
from the Dutch and the Malays theirs from Britain. At first Singapore was
part of Malaysia but it separated in 1963 to become an independent state.
Small colonies still persisted in the area and continued to seek their independence,
the kingdom of Brunei becoming independent as recently as 1984.
Africa and Soviet Union
In Africa also major countries with large or majority Muslim populations
such as Nigeria, Senegal and Tanzania began to gain their independence in
the 1950's and 1960's with the result that by the end of the decade of the
60's most parts of the Islamic world were formed into independent national
states. There were, however, exceptions. The Muslim states in the Soviet
Union failed to gain their autonomy or independence. The same holds true
for Sinkiang (called Eastern Turkestan by Muslim geographers) while in Erirea
and the southern Philippines Muslim independence movements still continue.
National States
While the world of Islam has entered into the modern world in the form of
national states, continuos attempts are made to create closer cooperation
within the Islamic world as a whole and to bring about greater unity. This
is seen not only in the meetings of the Muslim heads of state and the establishment
of the OIC (Organization of Islamic Countries) with its own secretariat,
but also in the creation of institutions dealing with the whole of the Islamic
world. Among the most important of these is the Muslim World League (Rabitat
al-Alam Al-Islami) with its headquarters in Makkah, Saudi Arabia has in
fact played a pivotal role in the creation and maintenance of such organizations.
The Revival and Reassertation of Islam
Muslims did not wish to gain only political independence, They also wished
to assert their own religious and cultural identity. From the 18th century
onward Muslim reformers appeared upon the scene who sought to reassert the
teachings of Islam and to reform society on the basis of Islamic teachings.
One of the first among this group was Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab, who hailed
from the Arabian peninsula and died there in 1792. This reformer was supported
by Muhammad ibn al-Sa'ud, the founder to the first Saudi State. With this
support Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab was able to spread his teachings not
only in Arabia but even beyond its borders to other Islamic lands where
his reforms continue to wield influence to this day.
In the 19th century Islamic assertion took several different forms ranging
from the Mahdi movement of the Sudan and the Sanusiyyah in North Africa
which fought wars against European colonizers, to educational movements
such as that of Aligarh in India aiming to reeducate Muslims. In Egypt which,
because of al-Azhar University, remains to this day central to Islamic learning,
a number of reformers appear, each addressing some aspect of Islamic thought.
Some were concerned more with law, others economics, and yet others the
challenges posed by Western civilization with its powerful science and technology.
These included Jamal al-Din al Afghani who hailed originally from Persia
but settled in Cairo and who was the great champion of Pan-Islamism, that
is the movement to unite the Islamic world politically as sell as religiously.
His student, Muhammad 'Abduh, who became the rector of al-Azhar, was also
very influential in Islamic theology and thought. Also of considerable influence
was his Syrian student, Rashid Rida, who held a position closer to that
of 'Abd al-Wahhab and stood for the strict application of the Shari'ah.
Reform Organizations
Among the most famous of these thinkers is Muhammad Iqbal, the outstanding
poet and philosopher who is considered as the father of Pakistan. Moreover,
as Western influence began to penetrate more deeply into the fiber of Islamic
society, organizations gradually grew up whose goal was to reform society
in practice along Islamic lines and prevent its secularization. These included
the Muslim Brotherhood (Ikhwan al-Muslimin) founded in Egypt and with branches
in many Muslim contries, and the Jama'at-I Islami of Pakistan founded by
the influential Mawlana Mawdudi. These organizations have been usually peaceful
and have sought to reestablish an Islamic order through eduction. During
the last two decades, however, as a result of the frustration of many Muslims
in the face of pressures coming from a seculatized outside world, some have
sought to reject the negative aspects of Western thought and culture and
to return to an Islamic society based completely on the application of the
Shari'ah.
Today in every Muslim country there are strong movements to preserve and
propagate Islamic teachings. In countries such as Saudi Arabia Islamic Law
is already being applied and in fact is the reason for the prosperity, development
and stability of the country. In other countries where Islamic Law is not
being applied, however, most of the effort of Islamic movements is spent
in making possible the full application of the Shari'ah so that the nation
can enjoy prosperity along with the fulfillment of the faith of its people.
In any case the widespread desire for Muslims to have the religious law
of Islam applied and to reassert their religious values and their own identity
must not be equated with exceptional violent eruptions which do exist but
which are usually treated sensationally and taken out proportion by the
mass media in the West.
Education and Science in the Islamic World
In seeking to live successfully in the modern world, in independence and
according to Islamic principles, Muslim countries have been emphasizing
a great deal the significance of the role of education and the importance
of mastering Western science and technology. Already in the 19th century,
certain Muslim countries such as Egypt, Ottoman Turkey and Persia established
institutions of higher learning where the modern sciences and especially
medicine were taught. During this century educational institutions at all
levels have poliferated throughout the Islamic world.
Nearly every science ranging from mathematics to biology as well as various
fields of modern technology are taught in these institutions and some notable
scientists have been produced by the Islamic world, men and women who have
often combined education in these institutions with training in the West.
In various part of the Islamic world there is, however, a sense that educational
institutions must be expanded and also have their standards improved to
the level of the best institutions in the world in various fields of learning
especially science and technology. At the same time there is an awareness
that the educational system must be based totally on Islamic principles
and the influence of alien cultural and ethical values and norms, to the
extent that they are negative, be diminished. To remedy this problem a number
of international Islamic educational conferences have been held, the first
one in Makkah in 19tt, and the foremost thinkers of the Islamic world have
been brought together to study and ponder over the question of the relation
between Islam and modern science. This is an ongoing process which is at
the center of attention in many part of the Islamic world and which indicates
the significance of educational questions in the Islamic world today.
The case of Saudi Arabia
Because of the presence of the holy cities of Makkah and Madinah in its
midst, Saudi Arabia is the heartland and center of the Islamic world and
its development is of great significance for the Islamic world as a whole.
It is, therefore, necessary to deal with it separately albeit briefly. Already
in the 18th century, the Sa'ud family in Najd in alliance with 'Adba al-Wahhab
and their followers became a political power to be reckoned with. In the
early 19th century the newly established Saudi power created by Muhammad
ibn Sa'ud united much of Arabia and even influenced other parts of the Muslim
world. The Ottomans, wary of the rise of this new and independent power,
asked Muhammad Ali, the ruler of Egypt, to crush the new movement. After
several campaigns, Muhammad Ali succeeded and the first Saudi state ended.
A second Saudi state was established briefly in 19th century. Finally toward
the end of the century 'Abd al-Aziz ibn Sa'ud, an exceptionally gifted military
leader and statesman, succeeded against considerable odds to overcome external
and internal opposition, especially of the Rashid family, to recapture Riyadh
with a small number of men in 1902 and from there to extend his power over
the rest of Najd and finally the Hijaz and Asir. By 1926 he had gained control
of Makkah, Jeddah and Madinah and was recognized as the king of the vast
area which henceforth became known as Saudi Arabia. The Saudi family rules
to this day in that land, considering itself first and foremost as Khadim
al-Haramayn, that is, servant of the two holy cities of Makkah and Madinah.
With oil discovered in the late 30's in Saudi Arabia, the country became
transformed rapidly from a predominantly Bedouin society to a country with
major urban centers, ports, a vast network of highways, and the most modern
communications systems. From the 1950's to the 1970's more financial rescuers
were used in the building of Saudi Arabia than in any other country during
a comparable period. The result was a vast transformation of the land and
the life of its inhabitants, while at the same time Islamic Law has continued
to be strictly observed and Islam continues to be the guiding principle
of society.
Besides the adaptation of modern technology and the creation of major industries
which include not only the oil industry but petrochemicals and electronics,
Saudi Arabia has concentrated upon the training of its human resources and
educational development. Major universities have been established starting
in the 1960's and today the country boasts of not only such religious universities
as the Umm al-qura in Makkah, the Islamic University of Madinah, and Imam
Muhammad ibn Sa'ud Islamic University in Riyadh, but also the King Sa'ud
University in Riyadh with 35,000 students, the King 'Abdal-'Aziz University
in Jeddah, and the King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals of Dharan,
all of which provide excellent programs in the sciences and technology.
Saudi Arabia also has an extensive program of sending students to America
and Europe, mostly in technical fields. Some of these students have also
participated in scientific and technological research in the West. The first
Muslim astronaut was in fact from Saudi Arabia. This pioneer, Prince Sultan
bin Salman bin Abdul Aziz, flew in the shuttle Discovery in 1985 and launched
the first Arab satellite. Important Islamic research institutions have also
been established in Saudi Arabia to encourage scientific and scholarly activity.
These include the King Faisal Islamic Foundation which provides major annual
awards in the medical and scientific fields and the King Abd al-Aziz Scientific
City which sponsors a wide range of original scientific research.
The Saudis have also spent much of their oil wealth in welfare and health
projects both within Saudi Arabia and throughout the Islamic world. Their
concern for Islamic matters is shown not only in the building of numerous
mosques and the support of Islamic programs throughout the world, but most
of all in their care for the pilgrims who come annually to perform the rites
of hajj from all over the world. Thanks to modern methods of transportation,
the number of pilgrims has increased from a few tens of thousands fifty
or sixty years ago to some two million today. To care for the greatest annual
assembly on earth is a stupendous task which the Saudis have carried out
successfully over the years. They have built a special airport in Jeddah
for the pilgrims, the building being one of the masterpieces of contemporary
architecture, and have expanded greatly the areas of the sanctuary (human)
of both Makkah and Madianh. The treatment of the problems of the hajj represent
perhaps the best example of the Saudis' attempt to apply the possibilities
of modern technology to specifically Islamic needs. It symbolizes the intention
of Saudi Arabia to make use of modern science and technology white reaming
a profoundly Islamic society.
Conclusion
The Islamic world remains today a vast land stretching from the Atlantic
to the Pacific, with an important presence in Europe and America, animated
by the teachings of Islam and seeking to assert its own identity. Despite
the presence of nationalism and various secular ideologies in their midst,
Muslims various secular ideologies in their midst, Muslims wish to live
in the modern world but without simply imitating blindly the ways followed
by the West. The Islamic world wishes to live at peace with the West as
well as the East but at the same time not to be dominated by them. It wishes
to devote its resources and energies to building a better lift for its people
on the basis of the teachings of Islam and not to squander its resources
in either internal or external conflicts. It seeds finally to create better
understanding with the West and to be better understanding each other better
that they can serve their own people more successfully and also contribute
to a better life for the whole of humanity.